Low Blows: How Elephants Produce Low Frequency Vocalizations

By Sophie Wasserman

Last month, we introduced you to the wide variety of elephant vocalizations (link)--from very low frequency rumbles to higher frequency trumpets and chirps. But at least one question still remains: how do elephants produce this incredible range of sounds?

            To get a better understanding of how elephants vocalize, let’s first examine the basics of sound production in mammals. Remember from high school physics class that sound is a travelling mechanical wave, displacing the molecules of different media like air or water and causing them to vibrate. We can perceive sound because our ears contain membranes that are designed to translate this vibrational energy into signals our brain can recognize-- but that’s a whole different blog post! The important thing to note is that in order to make a sound, you need something for the sound to travel through, like air. Hence, vocalization production starts with the lungs. Elephants have an incredible lung capacity, taking in an average of 8-10 gallons of air per breath, or about 60-80 times greater than that of the average human.

Boonsri is amazed at how much air her lungs hold!

            Of course, what goes in must also come out, and so in the next step of vocalizing, the air is expelled from the lungs by contractions of the surrounding muscles and exhaled through the trachea to the larynx. The larynx, also called the voice box, is mostly made up of cartilage and muscle. It is found in mammals, reptiles, and even amphibians. The key components to vocalizations are two small membranes at the top of larynx called the vocal folds, or vocal cords. In humans, the pressure of the breath builds up and forces the vocal folds to separate until enough pressure has been released that they can recoil and come together again. This cycle keeps repeating naturally and without direct muscle control, causing the vocal cords to vibrate and thus create sound waves. We modulate our voice by loosening or tightening these folds, creating lower or higher sounds, respectively.

Elephant's vocal cords and larynx
Via Shoshani (1998)

Cats, on the other hand, have to actively contract the muscles of their larynx to produce their characteristic purr. Until recently, it was unclear whether an elephant’s rumble was produced in the same way as a human’s hum or a cat’s purr, but a study published in 2012 seems to indicate that they fall in line with humans. To test their theory, the researchers took the larynx of a zoo elephant who had died of natural causes and hooked it up to an aluminum tube. When they passed air through the vocal cords, the larynx produced sounds similar to that of a typical elephant rumble, demonstrating that the active muscle control of purring is not necessary for elephants to produce sound.

Cats use active muscle control of their larynx to purr
via Wikimedia Commons

The final step in the process of producing vocalizations is fine-tuning and modulating sound with the mouth. For humans, the positioning of our tongue and teeth can differentiate between consonants and vowels. In the elephant’s case, the way in which it holds its head, mouth, tongue, and trunk can modify the type and frequency of sound that it produces. For example, an Asian elephant will open her mouth when rumbling but will close off the tip of her trunk when chirping and squeaking. Most trumpets are produced with trunk raised, though this could be a behavioral cue instead of, or as well as, a way to modify the vocalization produced.

Elephants modulate sounds with trunk and mouth positioning

Still the question remains, how can elephants go so low? In other words, how do their rumbles contain infrasonic components as low as 10-12 Hz, or sound waves at a frequency below the human hearing range and about 3 octaves below the typical frequency of a human male’s voice? The first reason is that they’re huge animals. For instance, compare a violin to a cello: the longer the string and the larger the resonating chamber, the lower pitched the sound. Elephants, by nature of their size, have naturally longer vocal cords of about 7.5-10 cm in length compared to the measly 12-24 mm of humans. They also have a built-in resonance chamber in their two-meter long trunk, increasing the volume of air the sound passes through and lowering the pitch of the sound produced. Finally, the elephant’s hyoid bone, which provides support for the tongue and larynx, is comprised of five bones rather than the typical nine, and it is not attached to the skull directly, but atypically connected by ligaments and tendons. This enables greater flexibility of the larynx, which in turn allows their vocal cords to stretch even beyond what you would expect and produce even lower sounds.

Elephant vs human larynx
via Herbst (2013)

All of these adaptations, which enable the ultra-low frequency rumbles, allow for the communication of elephants across vast expanses, a necessity born of the structure of elephant society. Female elephants, who live within a familial herd, often use rumbles to gather together disparate herd members while male elephants will emit distinct rumbles during musth (their peak of sexual activity) to communicate with potential mates from far away, since they tend to live on their own or with loosely bonded male compatriots. In this way, the physiology of elephant vocalizations reflects the challenges and limits of their physical and social environments. But the production of the sound is only half the story; next month we’ll look at how the elephants on the other end of the communication perceive and localize the calls of their kin. 

References

Herbst, C. T., Stoeger, A. S., Frey, R., Lohscheller, J., Titze, I. R., Gumpenberger, M., & Fitch, W. T. (2012). How low can you go? Physical production mechanism of elephant infrasonic vocalizations. Science,337(6094), 595-599.

http://www.elephantvoices.org/elephant-communication/acoustic-communication.html

http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=129083762

http://www.elephantsforever.co.za/elephants-respiratory-system.html#.U6E6N-Dam_w

http://onwisconsin.uwalumni.com/features/an-elephant-never-begets/

http://news.psu.edu/story/141213/2009/10/19/research/probing-question-why-do-men-have-deep-voices

Photos:
Shoshani, J. 1998. Understanding proboscidean evolution: a formidable task. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 13, 480-487.
Cat by Sameer.S via Wikimedia Commons
Herbst, C. T., Švec, J. G., Lohscheller, J., Frey, R., Gumpenberger, M., Stoeger, A. S., & Fitch, W. T. (2013). Complex vibratory patterns in an elephant larynx. The Journal of experimental biology, 216(21), 4054-4064.

How To Guide: Performing an Elephant Health Check

by Lisa Barrett

After your first snack of grass and sugarcane, you felt a little bit queasy.  A few hours later, after another quick bite of bananas, you started feeling downright lousy.  You've made it to the doctor's office to get a checkup, but discovered a slight problem: your doctor doesn't speak elephant!  What can you do?

Like Somjai here, the elephants we work with receive regular health check-ups.

Photo by: Lisa Barrett

Since elephants cannot tell us when they are feeling ill, we rely on regular health checks to measure whether an elephant is healthy or sick, overweight or malnourished. Elephant veterinarians usually perform these checks on a monthly basis at the Golden Triangle Asian Elephant Foundation’s target training wall while employing positive reinforcement techniques (read more about target-training here). In addition, mahouts, elephant caretakers, will report any abnormalities or illnesses in his elephant to the vet. So, what are the steps of a basic elephant vet check?

What’s Up, Doc?

Before approaching an elephant, the vet will want to assess the body state of the patient and be sure that the elephant’s mahout is present. An upset elephant will likely have her ears pushed forward and her tail sticking straight out or up. These postural cues indicate that an elephant is not safe to approach. A good way to greet your patient is by handing them a nice handful of sunflower seeds, a delicious treat for elephants!

If Am's tail was erect and ears were pushed forward, it may not be safe to approach her.

Photo by: Lisa Barrett

“Eyes and Ears and Mouth and Nose…”

Next, the vet will check to make sure that the elephant’s eyes are bright and clear and that they are not secreting a lot of excess liquid. Dull eyes would indicate sickness or pain. It is normal for elephants to appear as though they are crying, because these tears help them flush out debris from the eyes (and these tears likely are not the same as when humans weep and emotionally feel sad). Liquid pouring from the eyes, however, could signify an ulcer or eye infection needing treatment. Similarly, an inspection of the ears for any smelly secretions is critical to a health check up. A cooperative elephant will also allow the vet to look inside of their mouth to check for any mouth sores or growths, and to count out four healthy teeth. If an elephant’s mahout has reported breathing problems in their elephant, the vet may also investigate the trunk to make sure airways are clear of any sticks or other obstructions.

We can tell a lot about Lakheng's health by checking her eyes.

Photo by: Lisa Barrett

Breathe In, Breathe Out

Checking the respiration rate of an elephant can be a hefty feat, as the giants do not like to stand still. At any rate, we can look at the elephant’s abdominal area to attempt a breath count. Believe it or not, they only breathe four to twelve times per minute!

How do we measure the pulse of an elephant? We place one or two fingers on the largest artery behind the ear. Interestingly, an elephant’s heart rate may triple in an attempt to get blood to all of their extremities if it is lying down. And just like your heart rate might be faster when you are at the doctor’s office, so might an elephant’s when she is with the vet!

We can measure an elephant's pulse on the back of her ear.

Photo by: Lisa Barrett

Skin & Toes

To be sure there are no rashes or fungal growth on the body of an elephant, a vet should examine the skin carefully. Believe it or not, some bug bites can pierce elephant skin, and the thick skin can close over the top and create an unhealthy ulcer if not cleaned properly. The skin should feel soft, hairy, and wrinkly.

Perhaps the most important part of the elephant body, feet and toenails require regular inspection for cracks, punctures, and pain. The mahout and veterinarian will also pay careful attention to whether the elephant is favoring a leg by observing her gait.

Asian elephants have five toenails on their front feet.

Photo by: Lisa Barrett

Step on the Scale

Most elephant vet checks will include weighing the animal, but if a facility does not have an elephant-sized scale, one can use a formula as a weight estimate. For adult elephants, this formula involves measuring the chest girth of the elephant, multiplying by 18, and subtracting 3,336.  A healthy female elephant weighs around two to three tons!

Vets will also keep a record of the elephant’s shoulder height, another measurement which we can estimate. By multiplying the circumference of an elephant foot by two, we get a fairly accurate guess at the elephant’s shoulder height! In other words, if you found an elephant footprint in the wild, you could measure its circumference to determine the body size of the wild elephant in that area.

Lastly, a vet can use body condition scores to evaluate whether an elephant is underweight, overweight, or just right. By using a standard yet subjective scoring system, he or she will rate different body areas (temporal, scapular, pelvic, etc.) between zero (for very little fat) to one (for very filled out). Summing these scores provides a total score that falls between zero and five—between malnourished and overweight.

A malnourished elephant (top) compared to a very full elephant (bottom).

Photo from: Fernando et al. 2009

Final Touches

All of these steps equip an elephant veterinarian with enough information to assess the general health of an elephant. It is important to have these regular check-ups so we have a record of each elephant’s health history. From being careful about approaching her patient to carefully assessing the health of each body part and the body as a whole, being an elephant veterinarian is “no small feat!”

Photo by: Elise Gilchrist

To see a health check in action on five-year-old Am, click here! 

Citizen Science: A Collaboration of Minds

By: Elise Gilchrist

I listened to a podcast this week called ‘Why We Collaborate,’ as part of the weekly NPR "TED Radio Hour" program.  Each week, NPR plays excerpts from TED talks about related topics and interviews the speakers.  The host, Guy Raz,  spoke about collaboration, and the different ways that people use modern technology to enhance and fuel group efforts. One of the most impressive examples of this type of collaboration is Wikipedia. Wikipedia is a free, online encyclopedia that is co-authored by thousands of people all over the world. Wikipedia now has 30 million articles written in 287 languages, so it is clearly an impressive collective effort. The podcast discussed other examples of instances where the public comes together to contribute to a common goal, such as a system where members of the community can ‘adopt a hydrant’ and they are then responsible for shoveling it out in snow storms. This theme of modern day, large scale collaboration struck a chord with me, and made me think of a concept I have recently become more familiar with, the idea of citizen science.

Citizen science is scientific research that is conducted, either in whole or in part, by amateur or non-professional scientists. In other words, citizen science is public participation in scientific research.  Just like Wikipedia requires input from thousands of non-professionals, scientific studies often benefit from contributions by non-scientists. My first personal experience with citizen science occurred when I was in college and conducted a research project about urban red-tailed hawks. It was important for my dataset to show where the hawks spent their time on campus and what time of day they were most often seen in the field. I did a lot of bird watching, trucking across campus with binoculars and clipboard in tow, but I could not be ‘in the field’ all the time. One of my advisors set up an online system where  any student that saw one of the hawks could complete an online form.  When they hit send, I would immediately receive the report in my inbox. Admittedly, many college students found the process dorky and ignored it, but a number of students and faculty used the system regularly and helped me target the raptors. I was able to finish my report with a data set fueled by the power of citizen science.

A red-tailed hawk from the population I studied.

Citizen science is a concept that has shown success for  numerous large-scale research projects in varying fields. The Cornell University Lab of Ornithology was one of the pioneers of this concept and has been using data collected by birdwatchers for decades. More than 200,000 people contribute to their projects each year, helping to collect data about migrations patterns, effects of acid rain on different species, population density, and many others. Other research groups have picked up on this trend and called to action citizen scientists from all over the world. REEF, a grass-roots marine conservation organization, recruits both scuba divers and snorkelers to complete fish surveys that are entered into a collective database, which has led to key information for fisheries management and even the discovery of new species. The Great Sunflower Project has been gathering information from the public about pollinators in North America since 2008. Think Elephants International utilizes citizen scientists as well: in our work with the Earthwatch Institute.

Earthwatch is an environmental charity that brings together volunteers and scientists from all over the world. There are a huge number of research projects and teams that volunteers can join, from observing cheetahs in Africa to counting macaws in the Amazon.  Think Elephants is going into our third season working with the Earthwatch Institute and their enthusiastic volunteers, in our "Thinking Like an Elephant" field program. Our research team works year round to develop and implement elephant cognition projects, but it is not until our volunteers arrive in May that we have the man power to conduct research with the rigor and pace we strive for.  Most importantly, our volunteers provide the extra eyes necessary to conduct behavioral observations of our captive populations, allowing us to collect a huge dataset of interactive behaviors.  Our volunteers come from many different backgrounds, from teachers to lawyers, but they share a common goal: to help the research team learn more about the mind and intelligence of the Asian elephant. With their help at the stopwatch calling out time delays, or with the clipboard collecting behavioral observations, or in the office entering data, we are able to accomplish a significant amount over the course of their stay.

Earthwatch volunteer from our first team of the season.

With Asian elephant populations on the decline, time is running out to discover just how intelligent and complex these animals are.  We need all the help we can get to gather data, and Earthwatch does just that by providing us with passionate helping hands.  With the help of citizen scientists, the Think Elephants team continues to find out more about the elephant’s intellectual capabilities. 

References

Raz, G. (2014, May 16). Why We Collaborate. NPR TED Radio Hour

"Citizen Science." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 26 May 2014

Cornell Lab of Ornithology: www.ebird.org

REEF: www.reef.org

The Great Sunflower Project: www.greatsunflower.org

The Earthwatch Institute: www.earthwatch.org

Welcoming New Faces: Teacher Training

by Rebecca Shoer

               Earlier this month, we were thrilled to welcome our three new Thai teachers to the Think Elephants International (TEI) team. Mai, Gib, and Tangmo just completed their undergraduate degrees in Biology and Natural Resources at Mahidol University located just outside of Bangkok. All three are former students of our founder, Dr. Plotnik, who is a professor in Conservation Biology at the university. As members of the TEI team, our teachers will be responsible for identifying and contacting schools, as well as running our curriculum in these schools. Before they could start working in schools, however, the girls came to the field site in the Golden Triangle to learn all about the work we do here with the elephants.

Visiting the elephant camp. Photo by Rebecca Shoer

               First was a crash-course in elephant biology and research with the research assistants. Having been students of Dr. Plotnik, Mai, Gib, and Tangmo are well-versed in animal cognition experiments and elephant cognition specifically, but this was an opportunity for them to see our research site in person, and discuss the process of designing and implementing studies. They also participated in a standard behavioral observation session, a veterinary health check, and toured the elephant camp. This was a great opportunity for the teachers to learn the basics of how we observe elephant interactions, and to interact with elephants themselves. 

Gib (left) and Tangmo (right) observing elephants. Photo by Rebecca Shoer

               We also had a number of discussions with the teachers regarding the ivory trade, threats to Asian elephants, and captive elephant management. Not only did we discuss the origins of the many problems faced by both Asian and African elephants, but we also brainstormed possible solutions and mitigation techniques for these issues. Having grown up in Thailand and understanding threats to elephants from both a scientific and a cultural perspective, we have challenged our teachers to create activities and games that will help their students understand just why it is so important to protect elephants.

               Having finished their elephant boot-camp with the RAs, it was time to work with our Thai education manager, P'Tom. Over the next few days, the girls learned about how to develop curricula, including identifying learning objectives and creating activities that are both fun and develop critical thinking skills. They watched video footage from our previous classroom pilots, and discussed with P'Tom the delicate art of managing a classroom. Finally, it was time to put their skills to the test: together, Mai, Gib, and Thangmo created an hour-long lesson to run in a local orphanage.

               Tangmo led the children in a number of new and fun activities, exploring the differences between Asian and African elephants, learning elephant body parts, and discussing the habitat needs of elephants. The rest of the TEI team had a great time watching our new teachers working with children.

Gib spending time with Lakheng and Pumpui. Photo by Rebecca Shoer

               Our teachers are now ready to start working with individual schools to run our curriculum.  Currently they are locating and contacting schools in the Bangkok area, and we hope to also reach schools in the Kanchanaburri area, a province with high incidences of human-elephant conflict. We are excited to have three new members in the Think Elephants team, as we move to expand our conservation program into classrooms throughout Thailand!

Call Me Maybe: Elephant Vocalizations

By Sophie Wasserman

As you may have seen in our recent Youtube video (Click Here), the Think Elephants International (TEI) research team is currently spending a few hours each day recording the various sounds made by our local, vocal elephants. TEI’s goal is to build up a database for use in future studies but the reality involves a lot of sitting, waiting, and wishing that you hadn’t forgotten bug spray. As we move forward with our project, we've compiled some useful information and a handy identification guide for the typical vocalizations (or sounds used to communicate) of Asian elephants, helpful for your next safari, jungle trek, or trip to your neighborhood zoo. 

While our Research Diaries video above showcases the more high-tech recording equipment, it’s important to remember that in the field, our most essential tools are pen and paper. Although the microphone allows us to preserve the vocalizations, these sound bytes are useless to us without also writing down which elephant made the call, the elephant’s posture and position, the names of other elephants within range, and the circumstances that prompted the call. In other words, the key to interpreting elephant vocalizations is context. For a good example, just watch the clips below!

Pretty intimidating, right? Sounds like some serious stuff is going down. Now watch the clip again—now with the audio and video.

This time, you get a completely different story. Thangmo, the initial elephant, and Lamyai, her arriving companion, are actually very close friends. Their roars and trumpets are expressing excitement at their reunion, as opposed to the terror the sound alone might suggest. We can tell they are not at ease by the way their ears are pinned straight and their tails are raised, but they twine their trunks and relax their ears when they finally meet, suggesting that these elephants are simply exchanging an exuberant greeting. Elephants tend to vocalize at times of high emotional arousal, with similar (to our ears at least) sounds conveying both positive reactions, such as excitement or playfulness, and negative reactions, such as anger, agitation, or fear. In this way, body posture, environment, and even level of affiliation between individuals are all crucial factors when trying to decipher the acoustic communication of elephants.

Male Phuki often rumbles more than our ladies

Though the majority of studies of elephant vocalizations have been completed with African elephants, a few have looked specifically at their Asian counterparts. In general, studies of Asian elephant classify their vocalizations into four main groups: rumbles, trumpets, chirps (which African elephants do not make) and roars. Elephants do make other sounds, but noises like these, including what some call “snorts” or “booms,” are classified as non-vocal sounds and are thus not as intensely studied. Keep in mind that elephant vocalizations are highly complex and variable, so defining a "standard" call is difficult. The examples below are provided to give you an idea  of what a particular category of vocalization could sound like.

Rumble: (from Boonjan, as another elephant arrived)

Rumbles are unique in that they contain infrasonic components, meaning part of the vocalization is below our hearing range. They have the longest duration of any call, typically lasting about five to six seconds. Elephants rumble during interactions within a herd, such as to assemble herd members when leaving a watering hole or to contact members who were separated from the herd, as well as when initiating interactions between herds. Rumbles are also integral to mating behaviors; males in musth and females in estrous produce specific rumbles that signal their body state to elephants far and wide.

Trumpet:  (from Lynchee, at the shower station)

Trumpets are loud, high frequency calls that last, on average, about one second. As seen in the clips above, trumpets are a very versatile vocalization; the three situations found most likely to elicit trumpets are play (especially in younger elephants), disturbance by humans or other animals, and aggression (such as while charging another species or vehicle).

Chirp: (from Lynchee, at the shower station)

Chirps are short, squeaky blasts lasting less than a few tenths of a second, usually produced in a series of 2-8. In the wild, young elephants rarely, if ever, chirp. Chirps seem to indicate confusion or alarm and are usually accompanied by confused running or bunching of herd members. In captivity, elephants have learned to associate chirping, which humans find charming and cute, with food rewards from their mahouts, and often use chirps as a way to ask for bananas or other treats.

Roar: (from Lanna, arriving in the grasslands)

If the clip above sounds familiar, it might be because sound editors for the film Jurassic Park mixed together elephant recordings with tigers, lions and alligators to get the perfect roar for their T.Rex. The mighty elephant roar usually lasts a little over two seconds and can reach over 100 decibels (that’s a little less than a jet engine taking off!). As you might predict, roars are used in instances of aggression, but also frequently used in play as well as upon first arrival in a new location.

Now that you know the four main types of elephant vocalizations, as well as the importance of context in understanding elephant acoustic communication, stay tuned for next month’s look at how elephants produce and interpret these calls themselves.

References:

Nair, S., Balakrishnan, R., Seelamantula, C. S., & Sukumar, R. (2009). Vocalizations of wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus): Structural classification and social context. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 126(5), 2768-2778.

http://mpse.org/events/sound-shows/jurassic-park/

How to Become Un-Endangered (Part 3 of 3)

by Lisa Barrett

 After looking at examples of successfully rescued species (Part 1) and some of the factors affecting which species we decide to save (Part 2), this final post of my three-part series will investigate the conservation debate with the case-study of the Asian elephant.

Part 3: Endangered Asian Elephants

Threats They Face

While much of the elephant conservation world has focused on protecting elephants by curbing the illegal trade of ivory and ivory poaching, there are many other threats that elephants face. Though elephants throughout Asia are vulnerable to illegal hunting and trade, the major threats to wild populations are habitat destruction and fragmentation. Humans have been clearing jungle for land development projects such as farming and road-building for decades, and as we overtake natural spaces, elephants are subject to potentially fatal interactions with humans. This is especially dangerous as human farmland is created and elephant habitat is destroyed; without alternate food sources, elephants may consume an entire farmer’s crop—and livelihood—in a matter of hours. Tensions and profit losses caused by increasing instances of crop raiding often culminates in humans killing elephants in retaliation, and elephants injuring humans in the process (a process termed "human-elephant conflict"). Altogether, reduction in habitat space and the growth of human populations leaves little we can do to support wild populations of the largest land mammal in the long-term.

At current rates, Asian elephants will likely be extinct in as little as 20-50 years. At the same time, there is scarce data on elephant population loss, making it difficult to predict how the population will change or to identify strategies to properly address solutions.

 Habitat loss is the biggest threat to Asian elephants.

Photo from: farmlandgrab.org

Learning from the Past

Elephants are popular targets for conservation efforts—not just because of elephants’ reputation as graceful giants and cultural icons, but because they are intelligent, social, and are critical for their ecosystem (learn more about elephants as a keystone species here). What strategies have been used by conservationists, and how do they create a rescue plan? While we would ideally apply past successful conservation action plans from other species in trying to protect Asian elephants, this situation is particularly complex and conservation is not a “one size fits all” enterprise. Take for example, this extract from an interesting case study about bird conservation from Natterson-Horowitz and Bower’s book, Zoobiquity:

In the 1980s, peregrine falcons were on the verge of going extinct. Biologists removed freshly-laid eggs from their nests to begin a captive breeding program, and soon the population was revived. The adolescent falcons grew up, were released, and began mating with other falcons.

Years later, when the California condor needed saving, conservationists applied this same lifesaving method. But this time, it seemed that the birds could not simply be raised and released. Biologists studying the behavior of these vultures determined that juvenile condors need to be mentored by older individuals in order to learn foraging and resting techniques to survive. By analyzing condors’ behaviors and setting up a mentoring program, biologists eventually brought the condors back from the dead. In this case, the conservationists had to admit their mistake: each population requires its own, specialized species recovery plan.

California condors became extinct in the wild in 1987.

Photo from: cacondorconservation.org

This story demonstrates how one conservation approach may not necessarily apply to another species (even if the species share the same class!), and it shows us that conserving endangered animals can be even more daunting than we found in the first two parts of this blog series. It also exemplifies the idea that it is crucial to understand a species’ behavior before embarking on a conservation “crusade” to help them (read about Conservation Behavior here).

For example, elephants are a migratory species. An important conservation effort for elephants has been to create corridors of vegetated space between fragments of elephant lands in countries such as India and Botswana. However, in some cases it is not possible to preserve the ancient migratory routes of these isolated populations. In fact, the feasibility of implementing this sort of method depends on the geographical area and whether creating a corridor would have drastically negative effects on the human community’s economy. Critics have also claimed that the establishment of corridors is too expensive given that there has been little evidence that corridors are successful.          

Another conservation strategy for Asian elephants involves discovering practical ways of preventing elephants from entering farmland. This method relies on behavioral research that tests efficacy of olfactory deterrents, such as chili pepper, and auditory deterrents, such as bee buzzing, which farmers can then place around their crops as a barrier. These techniques represent very simple solutions to mitigating an ongoing problem and will hopefully delay the disappearance of Asian elephants.

Third, the construction of physical barriers and fences have also aided in diminishing instances of human-elephant conflict. For example, bright spotlights, electrified fencing, and deep trenches have been used to deter elephants from exploring human settlements, but these methods can be expensive to implement. Another option is to send a trained female elephant to lead intruding herds away. However, some elephants may simply be attracted to the trained female.

Although expensive to install and maintain, electric fences usually keep elephants out.

Photo by: Lisa Barrett

As part of every method of conservation, we must first continue to seek to understand the behavior of Asian elephants and to work alongside community members to find the best solution for both sides. This involves educating people about the numerous benefits elephants indirectly offer to the people and helping them to understand the importance of saving elephants. Although some of these strategies are more focused on mitigating future loss of elephants, there are also efforts which concentrate on breeding elephants to foster population growth.

To learn more about conservation methods that could help save elephants, click here.

Looking to the Future 

While the fate of the Asian elephant almost certainly lies in extinction, there is much that can be done to mitigate this grim future. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF), which lists Asian elephants as a priority species for conservation, has initiated an ambitious program to help conserve dwindling populations of Asian rhinos and elephants (Asian Rhino and Elephant Action Strategy (AREAS)). AREAS focuses on preserving core land areas for wildlife and working with local community members to practice sustainable agriculture and land use. Legal protection of elephants and elephant habitat throughout Asia is another vital effort, especially that offered by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

Asian elephant population estimates are difficult to determine.

Image by: Riccardo Pravettoni, GRID-Arendal

We may not be able to stop the extinction of Asian elephants, but by educating future generations of policymakers and citizen scientists, TEI is investing all of its efforts in the future, and we need your help. Together, we may be able to change perspectives about the environment.

How To Become Un-Endangered

In this blog series, we have discussed how the U.S. Endangered Species Act represents a case study of how successful conservation efforts are often complicated plans requiring much collaborative work, including research, legislation, and education and that they do not come without critiques. We also explored possible factors in deciding which endangered species deserved to be “saved.” Interestingly, Asian elephants represent a charismatic species that may have made the list of those that are “worth saving” a little too late. While we have learned that there is not a single answer or panacea for saving Asian elephants, we have gained valuable insight into what it takes to help a species on the Red List becoming “un-endangered.” With Asian elephants, it’s important to remember that there simply is not enough space for there to be more free-ranging, wild elephants. Unfortunately, it seems we can only try to delay the inevitable by employing a variety of conservation methods, some of which have not convinced us of their efficacy.  

Please consider contributing to Think Elephants’ education programming here.

References

http://worldwildlife.org/species/elephant

http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/elephants/asian_elephants/areas/

http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/elephants/conservation-and-research/